Module 5: Life After Death
Echoes of Eternity: Roman Ideologies of Death and Continuity in Tomb and Text
The Ancient Roman world offers a rich tapestry of beliefs about life after death, informed by philosophical exploration, mythological tradition, and tangible funerary practice. Roman literature reflects a multitude of views on the afterlife, moving between philosophical materialism and mythological narratives. These conceptions broadly align, but discrepancies shed light on points of variation between ideology and practice in Roman society.
Ancient Roman philosophical writings often depict death as a final cessation, emphasizing an inevitability we all face. The philosopher Seneca describes death as ‘the end of all’, underscoring the Stoic ideal of accepting mortality without fear or expectation of continued existence elsewhere. Similarly, Sallust, referencing Julius Caesar, highlights death as ‘relief from suffering’, a viewpoint which resonates with Epicureanism, arguing the end of all living sensation eliminates both pain and joy.
Lucretius, in On the Nature of Things, extends this perspective, describing death as a dissolution of the body's atomic structure. He argues ‘mortals exist through successive exchanges of atoms’, implying while individual lives end, their constituent parts contribute to the continuity of the universe, feeding a cycle of perpetual renewal and rebirth. These perspectives prioritize a material world and reject notions of an individual soul's survival after death.
In contrast, mythological texts such as Ovid’s Metamorphoses explore concepts of an afterlife. The story of Orpheus and Eurydice vividly portrays The Underworld as a domain where souls persist, governed by the deities Persephone and Hades. This depiction suggests an enduring consciousness, albeit in a shadowy and insubstantial form, as we also find in book six of Virgil’s Aenied, where Aeneas encounters the shades of the dead in traversing The Underworld. Ovid’s narrative resonates with traditional Roman religiosity, which often accommodated belief in an afterlife structured around a divine judgment and reward or punishment.
A third perspective, found in the writings of Cicero, links morality and state service to a similarly virtuous celestial afterlife. Cicero claims those who ‘protected or assisted the fatherland’ are reserved a place in heaven, enjoying ‘perpetual happiness’. Here Cicero reflects a moralistic eschatology, where virtuous individuals ascend to a divine realm, aligning with Roman civic ideals and an emphasis upon legacy.
Roman funerary practices, exemplified by the Simpelveld Sarcophagus, the Porta Romana necropolis, and the Tomb of the Scipios, also illuminate diverse practical approaches to commemorating the dead, and the lived experience of those practicing ancient worship. The Simpelveld Sarcophagus, unearthed in the Roman Netherlands, contains an incredible scene of intricate interior reliefs depicting domestic ritual. These include household furniture, suggesting attempts to replicate earthly life in the afterlife. As in the writing of Cicero, it implies a belief in a personal, continued servile existence where familiar comforts and rituals are preserved. The sarcophagus blurs a line between life and death, portraying the afterlife as an extension of the deceased’s earthly existence.
Located outside the Roman city of Ostia, the Porta Romana Necropolis showcases a variety of burial types, including cremation and inhumation, along with grave goods including jewelry and household objects. As with many modern cemeteries, such variety reflects a coexistence of differing beliefs concerning death and the afterlife. The inclusion of grave goods indicates a belief in their utility beyond death, possibly for the deceased's continued journey or use in the afterlife. These practices align with the mythological depiction of an underworld where the soul may require ongoing sustenance.
The Tomb of the Scipios, a monumental burial complex on the Via Appia, highlights the importance of legacy and social status in Roman funerary custom. Ornate sarcophagi, bearing inscriptions and architectural embellishments, underscore a dedicated significance of preserving memory and familial honor. The epitaph of Lucius Cornelius Scipio Barbatus asserts his virtues, strengths and military achievements, again reflecting Cicero’s belief an individual’s virtuous earthly legacy ensured their figurative immortality.
Yet while there are many overlaps between literary depictions of the afterlife and lived funerary practices, notable discrepancies also emerge. The domestic scenes in the Simpelveld Sarcophagus resonate with mythological accounts, such as Ovid’s, which suggest a continuation of life in another realm. Similarly, the grandeur of the Tomb of the Scipios aligns with Cicero’s notion of a celestial reward for those who serve the state. The inclusion of grave goods in the Porta Romana necropolis echoes practical consideration of an underworld journey, as described in mythological narratives.
The philosophical perspectives of Seneca and Lucretius, which view death as the end of individual existence, appear at odds with material investments found in tombs and grave goods. Elaborate burials suggest a belief in methods of post-mortem continuity, whether spiritual or symbolic. And while philosophical materialism was influential among the elite, its absence in wider funerary practices indicates it was not applied evenly across Roman society.
Such divergence between literary source and funerary practice can be attributed to several factors. Roman society was pluralistic, a melting pot of beliefs, blending Greek, Etruscan, and local traditions. This syncretism allowed multiple conceptions of the afterlife to coexist, resulting in varying funerary practices. These often reflected distinct and discriminatory social stratification. The elaborate Tomb of the Scipios exemplifies an elite’s focus on legacy and honor, while simpler burials in the necropolis cater to a broader range of beliefs. Even among those who subscribed to philosophical materialism, tombs and inscriptions served and endure as symbols of familial legacy. Such concern for memory highlight contradiction between materialist beliefs and elaborate burials. But in a more pragmatic sense, grave goods and tomb decorations might not solely reflect beliefs about the afterlife but also serve practical or cultural purposes, demonstrating wealth or fulfilling pre-determined familial obligations.
Ancient Roman conceptions of life after death, depicted in literature and material culture, reveal a rich diversity of belief in death and the afterlife shaped by philosophical, mythological, and social influences. While literary sources offer a wide range of perspectives, from materialist cessation to mythological persistence and eschatological reward, funerary practices more consistently emphasize continuity, legacy, and honor. Discrepancies between these sources highlight the complexity and plurality of Roman attitudes toward mortality, shaped by cultural syncretism, social stratification, and the interplay of ideology and practice. This plurality underscores the adaptability of Roman society in accommodating diverse beliefs about one of humanity’s most profound mysteries… is death really the end?
