CLSC2500: Final Exam
The Role of Religion in Greek and Roman cities
Faith acts as an essential bonding agent in the public and social life of Ancient Greek and Roman cities, crafting cultural, political, and communal identities and binding together civic activity. Religion served as a collective phenomenon rooted in ritual, festival, and sanctuary, with polytheistic systems deeply intertwined with urban life (Zarmakoupi, 2024a). Such practice was not reliant upon sacred texts but instead flexible, localized expression of communal values and beliefs.
Sanctuaries stood at the heart of Ancient Greek religious life, serving as physical focal points for spiritual worship and social interaction. Temples functioned less as congregation sites but more as dwelling place of the god's image and locus of votive offering (Zarmakoupi, 2024a). Ceremonies, particularly those culminating in animal sacrifice, were held on outside alters, where rituals were not just acts of devotion but critical civic events. Sanctuaries also served as spaces for competition and display, and where monumental votive offerings, such as the Kouros statue from Samos (Zarmakoupi, 2024a), were able to highlight individual piety while simultaneously promoting a dedicator's economic and civic status within the community.
Religious rituals of procession complemented the sanctuaries’ role in uniting the populace. Ancient Athens’ Panathenaic Festival exemplifies a powerful blending of religious practice with civic life (Zarmakoupi, 2024b). Celebrated every four years, this multi-day event included athletic, musical, and equestrian competitions, culminating in a grand procession to the Acropolis. Depicted on the Parthenon frieze, the procession involved an unusually inclusive gathering of citizens of all classes and genders, as well as foreigners and even prisoners. Emphasizing and celebrating the city’s allegiance to its patron deity Athena, the final sacrifices at the Acropolis, often involving over a hundred animals, not only honored the goddess but provided a rare opportunity for the broader community to consume meat (Zarmakoupi, 2024b). Despite criticism that such festivals served as entertainment more than religious devotion, they became critical in reinforcing a shared civic unity and identity.
Osborne underscores the unique exceptionalism of Ancient Greek faith, which lacked the more rigid boundaries and systematic theology of modern religions, and where Ancient Greeks would have had little conception of religions other than their own (Osborne, 2015). Greek gods, worshipped under varying epithets across poleis, were seen as universal forces moving among the living, and whose favor was sought through rituals reflecting local values. Sanctuaries and festivals were not merely religious venues but arenas for defining and deepening relationships with the gods, and expressing civic and cultural identity (Osborne, 2015).
In contrast, for Ancient Roman cities, religious practice reflected both continuity and adaptation. The city of Dura-Europos in the Roman East demonstrates a co-existence of diverse religious traditions, with temples for Greek, Roman, and local deities constructed alongside a Jewish synagogue and an early Christian church (Zarmakoupi, 2024c). Such a pluralistic environment highlights the Roman approach of integrating local traditions into their traditional religious framework while applying unifying Imperial practices to the diverse populations under Roman rule.
In conclusion, religion in Greek and Roman cities was a dynamic, malleable, identity-shaping force which intertwined the sacred with the social. Through sanctuaries, sacrifices, and festivals, faith shaped communal bonds, celebrated civic identity, and accommodated a diversity inherent in ancient urban life, bridging differences and fostering a shared sense of purpose and belonging.
References:
Osborne, R. (2015). Unity vs. Diversity, in The Oxford Book of Ancient Greek Religion. Oxford University Press.
Zarmakoupi, M. (2024a). Video 3.1. Religion and sanctuaries. [Video File]. Retrieved from: https://canvas.upenn.edu/courses/1810630/modules/items/30711680.
Zarmakoupi, M. (2024b). Video 3.2. Religious festivals and processions. [Video File]. Retrieved from: https://canvas.upenn.edu/courses/1810630/modules/items/30711681.
Zarmakoupi, M. (2024c). Video 3.3. Religion in cities of Anatolia and the Near East. [Video File]. Retrieved from: https://canvas.upenn.edu/courses/1810630/modules/items/30711682.
The Integration of Economic Activities in the City of Delos
During the second and first centuries BCE, integration of diverse economic activities in the city of Delos exemplifies a strengthening relationship between urban development and economic function. As a significant trading hub and emporium, Delos underwent rapid urbanization and population expansion fueled by its strategic location, duty-free status, and role in connecting the eastern and western Mediterranean under Roman oversight (Zarmakoupi, 2018). This transformation shaped the urban fabric of the city, fusing a symbiotic relationship between commerce, geography, and infrastructure.
Unlike other cities which adopted a stricter Hippodamian orthogonal planning system, Delos developed more irregularly, dictated by its geographical and geomorphological requirements (Zarmakoupi, 2024a). With a coastline critical to its urban design and economic growth, access to natural harbors were prioritized over uniform grids. New neighborhoods such as the Stadium and North districts emerged adjacent to these harbors, and the irregularity of insulae (city blocks) within these districts further highlight the adaptive nature of Delos's development, reinforcing economic functionality over aesthetic uniformity (Zarmakoupi, 2024a).
The commercial heart of Delos existed adjacent to the sanctuary of Apollo (Zarmakoupi, 2024a), a religious, political, and economic nucleus near the main harbor. The area’s clustering of marketplaces and administrative buildings underscore the city’s co-existence of faith and commerce (Zarmakoupi, 2024b). However, the rapid growth of Delos's trading activity also created elements of more decentralized economic zones. Smaller harbors in the North and East districts further diffused commercial activity throughout the city, illustrating how Delos balanced centralized and localized economic activities alongside religious sites, while maintaining the expansion of a dynamic urban economy (Zarmakoupi, 2024a).
Economic integration also extended into individual homes, blurring lines between private and commercial spaces (Zarmakoupi, 2024c). Houses in Delos often included workshops and stores, a practice which maximized available space and further capitalized on prime locations near harbors and main thoroughfares. It reflects a broader Ancient Mediterranean practice where urban spaces combined residential and economic function, contrasting contemporary expectations of separating work and living environments (Zarmakoupi, 2024c).
The rapid urbanization of Delos necessitated continuous advancements in infrastructure to support its growing population and economic activity. Sustainable water management systems, such as cisterns beneath house courtyards, aqueducts, and recharge wells, supplied water for both residential and commercial use (Zarmakoupi, 2024a). Similarly, efficient waste disposal systems, including street-level sewage networks, sought to maintain hygiene and contain disease in the increasingly densely populated city. Such innovations reveal an early commitment to sustainable urban design as a means of facilitating economic growth.
Harbors such as Delos provided vital connections to Mediterranean trade networks, enabling the movement of goods, people, and resources (Zarmakoupi, 2024d). The economic success of Delos as an emporium was deeply bound to its ability to adapt its urban form to accommodate maritime commerce, underscoring the city's responsiveness and malleability in propelling its economic role.
The integration of economic activities in Delos was a multifaceted process shaped by its geographical context, trading function, and urban infrastructure. The city's adaptive design, decentralized economic zones, and incorporation of commerce into private domestic spaces reveal a model of urbanization driven by an effective program of economic pragmatism. Delos continues to serve as a compelling example of how ancient cities thrived as centers of trade and production while embracing sustainable and flexible urban development.
References:
Zarmakoupi, M. (2018). The urban development of late Hellenistic Delos. In D. Millette and S. Martin-McAuliffe(eds.), Ancient Urban Planning in the Mediterranean: New Research Directions, pp. 28-49.
Zarmakoupi, M. (2024a). Video 6.1. Urban Planning. [Video File]. Retrieved from: https://canvas.upenn.edu/courses/1810630/modules/items/30711729.
Zarmakoupi, M. (2024b). Video 7.2. Economic buildings in the agora and forum. [Video File]. Retrieved from: https://canvas.upenn.edu/courses/1810630/modules/items/30711747.
Zarmakoupi, M. (2024c). Video 7.1. Shops and Workshops. [Video File]. Retrieved from: https://canvas.upenn.edu/courses/1810630/modules/items/30711746.
Zarmakoupi, M. (2024d). Video 7.3. The economic foundations of ancient urbanism. [Video File]. Retrieved from: https://canvas.upenn.edu/courses/1810630/modules/items/30711748.
